Posters - 2024

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  How do Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) Behave in the Presence of a Swimming Researcher?

  Brianna Brianna and Megan Davis

  Longitudinal observations of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in managed care provide opportunities to assess behavior within different contexts, which may provide insights into individual and population wellbeing (e.g., Delfour et al., 2021; Serres et al., 2021). Since 2019, a longitudinal study on space use by bottlenose dolphins housed at a lagoon-based facility in Roatán, Honduras, has been conducted. Dolphin behavior and location data were collected with the goal of comparing behavior without humans present to varying contexts in which humans were present. The purpose of this descriptive study was to assess behaviors exhibited by dolphins in close proximity to a swimming, non-interactive researcher, which represent a subset of the available data. Secondarily, observed behaviors directed toward the swimming researcher were examined during each session to determine if researcher presence was associated with specific behaviors.

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  The Effect of Supranational Organizations on Investment Project Success

  Isaiah Chavez

  Supranational organizations, such as the World Bank, associate with member countries from across the world that cede an aspect of their authority and sovereignty. 137 countries partner with supranational organizations for the purpose of seeking benefits whether financially, militarily, or politically. Without understanding the effectiveness of supranational organizations, international communities risk becoming negatively impacted through the means of inaccurate support via financial aid through investment projects. This study examines the link between investment project success and support from supranational organizations. Analyzing 4,273 projects across 137 countries from the World Bank’s Private Participation in Infrastructure (PPI) 2022 report, it suggests a positive correlation between bilateral and multilateral support and project success.

  The application of this study is to illustrate the effectiveness of supranational entities in terms of investment project success through the means of bilateral and multilateral support to provide a more insightful view to foreign aid in investment projects.

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  Statistical analysis of recent trends in nuclear verdicts

  Kelsey Chorath

  By understanding and addressing the impact of nuclear verdicts, the insurance industry can strive for resilience and sustainable growth amidst a rapidly changing legal and economic environment. Social inflation describes how insurers’ claims costs are increasing above general economic inflation. Nuclear verdicts are a testament to rising costs that insurance companies must manage when running of their business. As the frequency and magnitude of nuclear verdicts continue to rise, the surge in massive settlements has prompted insurers to reassess risk management strategies, leading to increased premiums and a reevaluation of underwriting practices. Insurers are compelled to anticipate and mitigate the financial implications of potential large payouts, influencing their pricing models and overall market dynamics as these anomalies stay for the long haul. This research examines how these monumental legal decisions impact the industry's profitability and stability. By analyzing the National Law Journal’s “Top 100 Verdicts” report from 2010 to 2022, this research aims to observe changes within the landscape of nuclear verdict cases between different types of cases and lines of insurance. As the research continues, actuarial analysis will be done to understand and predict the outcomes of litigation proceedings in a macroscale, so insurance companies can be prepared to insure the risks that they are insuring

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  In God We Trust but Not the US Executive Branch

  Sierra Christa

  One of the most polarizing topics in the United States is politics, especially regarding the Executive Branch of the United States of America. Trust in the President is at an all time low, and we wonder what has provoked this change. The role of media in spreading information is essential to understanding levels of trust. While we know the press can alter politics through information, the validity of this information is uncertain. In today's society, confidence in the press is questioned as even the media is polarized. This caused me to hypothesize, there is a relationship between confidence in the media and trust in the executive branch such that the less confidence in the media the less trust in the executive branch.

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  Isn’t it a partnership?: Physician Partner Life Satisfaction

  Elias Ciudad and Lori Boies

  The American Medical Association Alliance (AMAA) conducted the Physician Family Experience Survey in early 2023.There has been an increase in physician burnout and suicide; suicide for physicians being at a higher rate than that of the general public. This is shown with 1 out of 10 physicians attempting considering suicide in 2021(7).

  Literature has indicated that physician burnout leads to secondary burnout in the physician family (4).This survey sought to understand the current state of the physician family experience and compare this with historical studies through statistical analysis. This statistical study aims to identify and model predictors of life satisfaction among physician families via standard tests, modeling and item response theory

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  Understanding the Evolutionary Conservation of Ilp3 Gene Across Drosophila

  Elias Ciudad, Cassandra Morales, Kendra Lancaster, and Lori Boies

  Drosophila melanogaster is a commonly used model organism in genetics and developmental biology. Research on the insulin signaling pathway in D. melanogaster provides evidence that it is similar to the human pathway and involved in metabolism, growth and lifespan regulation (5). The Genomic Education Partnership’s (GEP) Pathways Project is a network analysis that focuses on insulin signaling in the genus Drosophila through the annotation of genes (1). The approach of the project is to understand the evolutionary change in genes across species over time in biological pathways and look at the growth and metabolic homeostasis (2). Insulin, in Drosophila, is produced by secretory cells in the median eminence of the brain called insulin- producing cells (IPC’s). IPC’s release insulin-like peptides in response to hormones and bind to insulin receptors to regulate metabolism and reproduction. Drosophila insulin-like peptides (llp) promote an abundance of glycogen and lipids inducing glycolysis in cells (3). Glycolysis is the process of breaking down glucose and converting it into pyruvate and is important for growth and development in the fruit fly. There are eight different Drosophila insulin-like peptides (llp) that are responsible in growth conditions and produce a phenocopy of type 1 diabetes in humans. (3). The gene of interest in this study is the llp3 gene which is important for controlling nutrient- dependent growth control during development. We are interested in studying how evolutionarily conserved the llp3 gene is and investigated the llp3 in D. rhopaloa

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  Atlas

  James P . Clark

  • Problem: Hard for new gym goers to know how to achieve their goals.
  • Motivation: I had a hard time figuring out how to achieve the goals I wanted in the gym. A lot of it was just not knowing what to do or how to do it.
  • Solution: I want to create an application that will display some basic information, such as maintenance calories and current weight. It will be able to assist with calculations that need to take place to achieve a certain fitness goal.

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  Beneath the Surface: Exploring the Power of Aquatic Rewilding in Europe

  Jose Cornejo

  This relatively new concept has been used mainly in various European projects that in words of the European Rewilding project, the leading organization in rewilding, is helping preserve Europe biodiversity richness and enhance benefits that nature provides to humans (Rewilding Europe, n.d.). This rewilding method is also applied in the aquatic ecosystem, which is often called marine rewilding or freshwater rewilding, and it can be applied to any freshwater, brackish, or saltwater. Therefore, for the purpose of uniting them we will call it aquatic rewilding.

  There are many aquatic restoration projects and research compared to aquatic rewilding projects and organizations that focus on generating a rewilding impact. Even so, thanks to the recent boom interest in land rewilding, many initiatives all over the world have some part of aquatic rewilding or are focused on it entirely. The leading continent in rewilding projects is Europe and so it is in aquatic rewilding. Therefore, I will explore the three following European rewilding projects and use them us case studies:

  • First the organization “Sea wilding”, that is rewilding Loch Craignish, Argyll and Loch Broom, Wester Ross, mainly using oysters and seagrass (Seawilding | Native Oyster Reintroduction, Loch Craignish, Scotland, n.d.).

  • Second, the ”Sussex Kelp Recovery Project” is recovering the kelp forest of the Sussex coastline, England (Rewilding the Sussex seabed, n.d.).

  • Third, the Rewilding Europe project, ”Oder Delta”, that aims to restore freshwater and coastal ecosystem in the Oder Delta in Germany and Poland (Oder Delta, n.d.)(Fig 3.). Were this projects beneficial for the region? we hypothesize that these projects were beneficial for the region as they likely enhanced the ecosystem

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  Spiking Frequency Dependence on Input Current in Relation with The Leaky Integrate-and-fire Neuron Model

  Maria Chiara Cossio

  Neurons are the most fundamental part of the nervous system and are diverse in structure and function containing a cell body, dendrites, and axons (Ludwig, et al., 2022). These electrically excitable cells receive and transmit electrical and chemical signals. These electrical impulses are known as action potentials in response to an input, and aids in the transmission of neurological information to neighboring neurons. An action potential (AP) is a rapid sequence of changes in the voltage across a membrane and it's an all-or-nothing event. It has three main stages: depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization (Grider et al., 2023). Threshold depends on the shape of the sodium activation function near spike initiation (Platkiewicz & Brette, 2010). The value of that threshold sets the firing rate and determines the way neurons compute. The neuronal firing rate is defined as the number of spikes, divided by the duration of given spikes in a time interval (Tomar, 2019).

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  The Acute Effects of High-Intensity Functional Training on Inhibitory Control

  Julia Daniel, Katarina Carrizales, Amaryllis Rubalcaba, Katie White, and Amanda Galindo

  Based on findings from systematic reviews and metaanalyses, acute exercise (e.g., aerobic or resistance exercise) improves inhibitory control. However, a popular fitness trend, CrossFit®, has not been widely studied regarding its effect on inhibitory control. CrossFit® is a high-intensity functional training (HIFT) program that stresses the cardiorespiratory and muscular systems through complex, multi-joint movement patterns with minimal rests in-between sets. 1Wilke (2020) found that a 15-minute HIFT exercise bout improved working memory. However, the effect of HIFT on inhibitory control remains unclear. The purpose of the current study was to assess inhibitory control after a single bout of HIFT exercise

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  Mycoplasma Pneumoniae: Long-Term Effects on the Lungs

  Alyssa David

  Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a bacterium responsible for causing pneumonia in the lungs. M. pneumoniae is responsible for an average of 2 million cases of bacterial pneumonia in the United States each year (ASM Journal). When M. pneumonia infects the lungs, it releases community-acquired respiratory distress syndrome (CARDS toxin), which is capable of two enzymatic functions, vacuolization and ADP-ribosylation. ADPribosylation is found in the N-terminal domain of the protein, and the glutamic acid at amino acid residue 132 is critical for enzymatic function. There is evidence that the vacuolization function is encoded by the C-terminal of the protein. Preliminary findings in our lab have indicated that after intoxication, cells can release a fragment into the extracellular environment. The extracellular fragment is approximately 30-35 kDa in size, however its function and role in disease is still unknown. We hypothesize that during infection from M. pneumoniae, this fragment is being released in the environment from CARDSintoxicated cells and affecting the surrounding cells in the lung tissue. To test this, we used conditioned media from DB (control)- and CARDS toxin-treated A549 cells to treat human differentiated THP-1 macrophages. Macrophages were then challenged using a well established inflammasome activation protocol, and the inflammatory cytokine interleukin 1beta(IL-1β) was measured by ELISA. Throughout our study, our findings will help us determine if CARDS toxin can indirectly alter the immune response during M. pneumoniae infection, resulting in altered host defense and M. pneumoniae persistence and chronic infection

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  Assessing Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) Behavioral Responses to Discriminative Stimulus During Dolphin Interaction Programs (DIPs)

  Megan Davis and Hannelore Tampipi

  Dolphin-human interaction programs (DIP) References have become a popular experience offering humans an opportunity to interact or swim with cetaceans, most often bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus).

  ● Previous studies on dolphin-human interactions have been centered on therapeutic results for humans (Brensing et al., 2005), guests’ future conservation efforts, and educational efficacy (Miller et al., 2013) rather than welfare or outcomes for dolphins (Smith, 1981).

  ● Under human care, trainers request behaviors from dolphins typically via a hand signal as a discriminative stimulus (SD).

  ● Resulting behavioral responses to these SDs during interaction programs may suggest willingness to participate (WTP), and potentially indicate overall health and welfare (Clegg et al., 2019). The goal of the present study is to investigate potential relationships between behavioral repertoire variety included in a session, and directed attention of a trainer, with the number of incorrect responses from a dolphin in a DIP. We hypothesize that:

  H1: Increasing the variability of behaviors requested will be associated with fewer incorrect responses emitted by the dolphin in a DIP.

  H2: Increased trainer attention will be associated with a decrease in number of incorrect dolphin responses in a DIP

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  Optimized Protein Purification of the Mutant 273 CARDS Toxin from Mycoplasma pneumoniae

  Jalyn De La Fuente

  Mycoplasma pneumoniae is an atypical bacterium that is known to cause respiratory distress and can lead to respiratory illnesses such as community-acquired pneumonia, pharyngitis, and tracheobronchitis. M.pneumoniae produces an ADPribosylation and vacuolating toxin called Community Acquired Respiratory Distress Syndrome (CARDS) toxin. Alone, the CARDS toxin is capable of reproducing many of the signs of an M.pneumoniae infection. The CARDS toxin often causes what is commonly referred to as “walking pneumonia”, a term used to characterize the mild symptoms associated with the infection. Patients with “walking pneumonia” can manage the condition without hospitalization, and often can continue with their normal day-to-day life. The full-length CARDS toxin, which is composed of Domains 1, 2, and 3, includes the amino acids 1 through 591. Domains 2 and 3 include amino acids 269 through 591. When the CARDS toxin reaches the endoplasmic reticulum, domain 1, the mART domain, separates from domains 2 and 3. The mART domain takes part in ADP-ribosylation, which contributes to the pathogenic effects of M. pneumoniae. Currently, researchers are investigating the functions of domains 2 and 3 after their separation from domain 1. To develop a better understanding of domains 2 and 3, it is imperative to purify the portion of the protein responsible for these domains. The mutant CARDS toxin, which includes domains 2 and 3, consists of amino acids 273 through 591. The 273 mutant CARDS toxin, which contains more basic amino acids, has a higher isoelectric point than the full-length CARDS, which contains more acidic amino acids. Understanding that the mutant CARDS toxin has a higher isoelectric point than the full-length toxin, aided in the pH selection for purification. Proteins typically have the least solubility near their isoelectric point. Therefore, during protein purification, selecting a pH higher than the protein’s isoelectric point can minimize protein precipitation, and can improve the purity and yield. The objective of this project was to optimize the protein purification of the mutant CARDS toxin by modifying the current protein purification protocol, particularly concerning the pH of the elution and binding buffers. To familiarize ourselves with protein purification, we began by purifying the full-length CARDS toxin on the AKTA Start HPLC equipped with a HisTrap. We then used column chromatography to determine the optimal pH for the mutant CARDS toxin. After evaluating which pH resulted in the highest protein concentration, we used the AKTA with the corresponding binding buffer and elution buffer for optimal purification. Through column chromatography, we determined, via Coomassie SDS-PAGE gel, that pH 11 elution buffer and binding buffer provided the highest yield of the 273 CARDS protein.

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  Rewilding the ”Wild West”: Restoring Bison Populations in the American Prairie

  Ana Christina Diaz

  Historically, North America was home to a biodiverse and environmentally rich land, from beavers, mountain lions, numerous bird and insect species, and North America’s largest land mammal, the bison (Figure 1). The American bison (Bison bison), also referred to as buffalo, are a keystone species in their environments, meaning their absence can have detrimental effects on other species. Bison are environmental engineers that create a “mosaic of habitats” with their behaviors including wallowing, grazing, and defecating (American Prairie Foundation 2024). Bison once roamed from Canada to Mexico with a population estimated around 50 million but were tragically almost wiped to extinction, with just a few hundreds remaining in Western rangelands (Schneider 2023). This genocide of buffalo was driven by American settler colonialism with the U.S. government endorsing buffalo hunting as a means to decimate Indigenous American populations, since bison are intertwined into Native American culture and hold a highly significant kinship to tribes (Schneider 2023). While an unsavory piece of American history, it is crucial to understand the importance of restoring bison populations (Figure 2). A more radical form of ecological restoration that is making its way to the forefront of environmental policy is “rewilding” – a term used to describe a more hands off approach to conservation by restoring the ecological functions of a habitat and then letting nature figuratively take the wheel. Although this term was coined in the 1990s, it is now becoming a subject of interest thanks to multiple rewilding projects occurring across Europe, including the restoration of European bison (Jepson and Blythe 2022). To restore bison to their habitats as ecological engineers, I believe rewilding principles should be incorporated into their conservation; this project focuses on current bison conservation efforts in North America, and how they can be improved.

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  Mitigating Supply Chain Disruptions with Artificial Intelligence (AI)-based Risk Management

  Emily Do, Aaron Flores, and Jason Sanchez

  Supply chain disruptions are unforeseen events that hinder smooth flow of goods, services, and information within the supply chain network. Examples of supply chain disruptions includes shortages from sought-after items like essential health products in 2020, natural disasters, and geopolitical conflicts that can lead to transportation delays, quality control issues, unexpected demand fluctuations, and impacting overall business performance (McKendrick, 2023). Effective management of supply chain disruptions include proactive risk assessments and quick response strategies to mitigate impact to ensure operation continuation. Traditional risk management approaches reduce disruptions by maintaining service levels while minimizing inventory and predicting future demand for effective resource allocation (McKendrick, 2023). Artificial intelligence (AI) improves supply chain by optimizing warehousing and inventory management through automating packing processes, optimizing warehouse layouts, and expediting order fulfillment while reducing storage requirements. Moreover, AI can leverage real-time data to propose alternative sourcing strategies and optimize delivery routes, enhancing efficiency across the supply chain (Remko 2023). Future advancements in AI may include predictive quality control systems and AI-powered Negotiations and Sourcing tools. This risk management solution would use supplier data and market trends to automate negotiation processes to secure materials at competitive prices (Bughin, et al., 2017). These advancements could simplify procurement practices and lead to substantial cost savings. This study aims to explore how AI-driven risk management solutions, particularly AI-powered Negotiations and Sourcing, effectively mitigate supply chain disruptions

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  Tripodal naphthalene mono imide chemosensor for detection of metal ions

  Joshua Do and Rosanna Jees

  1,8-Naphthalimide is an excellent fluorophore (fluorescent compound) with long emission wavelength band (400-600 nm), a large stokes shift, insensitive to pH and synthetic versatility. Triazole functional group has been used as binding sites for various metal ions in particular Zn(II), Cu(II) and Fe(III) metal ions. Based on naphthalimide as fluorophore and triazole as binding site, a new tripodal chemosensors has been designed and synthesized by copper catalyzed Huisgen Azide Alkyne cycloaddition reaction (known as click reaction). Its photophysical properties with various metal ions were investigated by fluorescence spectroscopy. Binding studies with various metal ions such as Zn(II), Cd(II) and Fe(III) by fluorescence and UV-Vis absorbance are under study in various solvent. Fluorescence is either enhanced or quenched on addition of these metal ions, which is attributed to PET (photo induced electron transfer) effect

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  Adhesive force of minerals and substrates

  Cynthia Domergue

  Traditional processing for the separation and concentration of minerals requires a large volume of water to process ores to produce metals and other mineral resources. Furthermore, most copper mines in the US are in the southwest, particularly Arizona and New Mexico, which both have arid climates (Fig. 1). Therefore, sustainable practices need to be developed to maintain the production of metals. Objectives:

  • Examine the contact angle of mica and silica at varying surface treatment • Determine the average adhesive forces for each sample

  • Compare the average adhesive forces for each sample based on the surface treatment and mineral type

  • Create a mineral tip to improve particle-substrate adhesion measurements

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  Synthesis and Characterization of Ugi Adducts of Isatin

  Cynthia Domergue and Kimberly Hernandez

  B-lactam fragments have gathered attention in the chemistry field in being a pharmacophore for medicinal chemistry

  - The Ugi reaction involves the reaction of an aldehyde, a primary amine, a carboxylic acid, and an isocyanide to generate α-acetoamido carboxamide derivates (Ugi adducts) -

  We focused on the synthesis of the β-lactam derivatives: 1-Benzyl-N-(tert-butyl)-2-oxo-3(2-oxoazetidin-1- yl)indoline-3-carboxamide (4a), N-(tert-Butyl)-2-oxo-3-(2- oxoazetidine-1-yl) indoline-3-carbpxamide (4d) , and N- (tert-Butyl)-1-methyl-2-oxo-3-(2-oxoazetidine-1- yl)indoline-3-carboxamide (4e)

  - The Ugi adducts of isatin were synthesized in TFE solvent by stirring the reactant mixture at room temperature and the conversion was monitored by TLC. The solvent was evaporated, and the crude product purified by flash chromatography.

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  Comparing Activity Levels of Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) During Snorkels to a Swimming Researcher

  Sabrina Drouin, Erika Aguirre, and Charles Lares

  Bottlenose dolphins under professional care are provided with a range of enrichments that have a variety of features and levels of complexity at various frequencies (Lauderdale et al., 2022). In a previous study conducted by Brensing et al. (2015), they found that dolphins seemed to be attracted to adult swimmers, but only if they had ample space to swim. The purpose of this study is to examine dolphin activity level under two different conditions with humans in the water. We hypothesize that dolphin activity level will be higher during snorkel sessions than a single swimming researcher because there are more people in the water

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  Does field research modify academic development?

  Emily Eardley, Abigail Delarosa, and Desiree Martinez

  Undergraduate research experiences (URE) provide hands-on exposure to the research process but also aid in the development of self-efficacy and interest in research. In the study, students from distinct types of universities (two public and one private) were asked to take a survey before and after their URE. The results of the pre-and post were analyzed based on self-efficacy, interest in research, type of school, and gender. The results showed that there is no relationship between public and private school students and their research interests. The study's findings underscore the nuanced interplay between students' self-efficacy, gender, and engagement experiences, shedding light on the complex factors that influence students' academic confidence and motivation. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for educators and policymakers seeking to implement effective strategies to support diverse student populations and foster inclusive learning environments.

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  Delivered Mobile App

  Juni Ejere

  This platform is a mail delivery notification system to assist school mailrooms, specifically the St. Mary’s University mailroom, in notifying users of the mailroom when packages have arrived, creating one location where all mail information can be found and overall improving the efficiency of the mailroom. Students and faculty at St. Mary’s University have access to a mail room to receive packages. This is very useful, especially for those who stay on campus or who want an external location to receive mail. Now that recipients receive an email when a package is delivered, the main concern of picking up a package before it is disposed of has been reduced. However, it is still inconvenient for students who live in an on-campus dorm to repeatedly check their dorm room mailbox when expecting a letter, because no notification is sent when letters are delivered. If the student is not expecting to receive a letter (perhaps a bill, money sent from family, or other important and timesensitive notices) it can pose a massive inconvenience for them. Lastly, for newer students especially, students must scour the St. Mary’s website to determine where the mailroom is, mailroom hours, what their dorm address is, how to order packages to this address, how to send mail, etc., and all this information is found in different places. The approach is to create a mail delivery notification mobile application to solve this problem. The app will have two interfaces, one for the students and faculty who will receive their mail, and one for those operating in the mailroom center. The student will be able to see when their package has arrived and where it is located, view helpful information about sending and receiving mail, and even send in help tickets. The administrators will be able to scan in packages, send notifications, search for packages, search for students, resolve help tickets, and monitor storage space all from the mobile app.

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  Synthesis and Characterization of Ugi Adducts of Isatin

  Monabelle Elbayeh

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  A Descriptive Study of Baseline Activity Levels of Tursiops truncatus

  Brianna M. Erck

  Well-being of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) has been measured in many ways, including activity levels. Activity levels are composed of behaviors that vary with intensity and range from floats, breaches, perimeter swims, and aerials. Deviations from baseline behavior or activity level may be indicative of changes in state of well-being. The purpose of this study was to assess the activity level of a large social grouping of bottlenose dolphins in human care during baseline observations. A total of 215 5-min observation sessions were collected for a population of 15 to 18 bottlenose dolphins located in Roatán, Honduras between 2019-2024. The findings indicated the lowest and highest levels of activity changed across years, which may have been related to social composition. Future research should evaluate the impact of different social compositions (e.g., presences or absences of males) on activity levels.

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  Exploring Neural Networks for Developing a Chess Learning Platform with Integrated AI Agent

  Lauren Escobedo

  Chess is a highly strategic, complex, and long-form game that has been popular for many centuries. Due to the aforementioned complexities of this game, new players often have a hard time learning how to effectively and successfully play. With the recent developments in machine learning algorithms, new opportunities arise to create artificially intelligent tutors - not only for chess, but for all subjects. This project aims to develop a product which investigates the integration of an artificially intelligent “coach”, named Chesster, to train the player, which is trained on a neural network machine learning algorithm.

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  Water Contaminant Analysis Using IC and FAAS

  Malachi Farley and Susan Oxley

  Water in local areas contain contaminants that could be gathered from pollution, runoff, or even rain in public and private water systems. These water systems include potential aquifers, public water works, ponds, wells, lakes, etc. In this experiment, anion determination of 𝐶𝑙−, 𝐵𝑟𝑂3 − , 𝑆𝑂4 2−, 𝑃𝑂4 3−, 𝑁𝑂3 −, 𝑁𝑂2 −, and 𝐵𝑟𝑂3 − in local and drinking water was used to determine if the local or drinking water is suitable for consumption through Ion Chromatography. A common metal, Potassium, 𝐾 +, was also determined in local and drinking water to determine if the potassium levels were suitable for consumption through Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy.